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References
  • 1. Stratton, K., Howe, C., and Battaglia, F. (Eds). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. Washington, DC; National Academy Press, 1996.
  • 2. Streissguth, A., and Kanter, J. (Eds.) The Challenge of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Seattle: University of Washington, 1997.
  • 3. Wilkie, S. Global overview of drinking recommendations and guidelines. AIM Digest (Supplement), June, 1997, 2-4, p. 4.
  • 4. Abel, E. "Moderate" drinking during pregnancy: cause for concern? Clinica Chimica Acta, 1996, 246, 149-154.
  • 5. Forrest, F., and du Florey, C. Reported social alcohol consumption during pregnancy and infants' development at 18 months. British Medical Journal, 1991, 303, 22-26.
  • 6. du Florey, D., et al. A European concerted action: maternal alcohol consumption and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy and development at 18 months. International Journal of Epidemiology, 1992, 21 (Supplement #1).
  • 7. Polygenis, D., et al. Moderate alcohol consumption during pregnancy and the incidence of fetal malformations: a meta-analysis. Neurotoxicol Teralol., 1998, 20, 61-67.
  • 8. Streissguth, A. P., et al. Prenatal alcohol and offspring development: the first fourteen years. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1994, 36(2), 89-99; Goodlett, C. R., and Peterson, S. D. Sex differences in vulnerability to developmental spatial learning deficits induced by limited binge alcohol exposure in neonatal rats. Neurobiological Learning and Memory, 1995, 64(3), 265-275; Day, N. L. The effects of prenatal exposure to alcohol. Alcohol Health and Research World, 1992, 16(2), 328-244.
  • 9. Wilkie, S. Global overview of drinking recommendations and guidelines. AIM Digest (Supplement), June, 1997, 2-4, p. 4.
  • 10. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists statement on the BMA report on fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists website, June 4, 2007.
  • 11. Stratton, K., Howe, C., and Battaglia, F. (Eds.) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996.
  • 12. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Alcohol and Your Unborn Baby. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1987
  • 13. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Alcohol and Your Unborn Baby. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1987
  • 14. Pauker, S. P. By The Way Doctor. Harvard Women's Health Watch, June 2002, p. 7. Dr. Pauket is a member of the Harvard Women's Health Watch Advisory Board.
  • 15. Yee, Linda. New Study Says Some Alcohol OK for Pregnant Women. HealthWatch website, November 15, 2007.
  • 16. Cockcroft, Linda. Pregnant women told to keep off alcohol. Telegraph Media, October 26, 2007.
  • 17. Rose, David. Pregnant women told glass of wine a day is fine -- and too dangerous. The Times (UK), October 11, 2007.
  • 18. Rose, David. Pregnant women told glass of wine a day is fine -- and too dangerous. The Times (UK), October 11, 2007.
  • 19. Pregnancy and Alcohol - How Much is Safe? Medical News Today website, October 27, 2007.
  • 20. Nathanson, Vivienne. Is it all right for women to drink small amounts of alcohol in pregnancy? No. British Medical Journal, 2007, 335, 857.
  • 21. O’Brien, Pat. Is it all right for women to drink small amounts of alcohol in pregnancy? Yes. British Medical Journal, 2007, 335, 856.
  • 22. It has been pointed out that "Given its emotive nature, the issue of risk to pregnancy has frequently been overstated. For example, US publicity material in the 1980s and early 1990s frequently quoted Clarren, a worker at the Seattle Institute of Dysmorphology, as having stated that alcohol was the third most important cause of infant handicaps. However, Clarren was referring to handicaps with known causes, which are only about 10 per cent of the total. Such problem inflation is fanned by press reports of cases of severe alcohol damage, and although scientists may dismiss isolated reports, they assume great importance in the minds of the public and consequently in the minds of policy-makers."
    The past is illuminating; "In the US no public warnings were issued until 1977. Women were then warned against consuming more than six drinks a day. At the same time, moves to display compulsory public health warnings about the dangers of alcohol to the foetus were rejected. In 1980 a national workshop was held and the following year the American Surgeon General issued a warning to pregnant women against consuming alcohol, even in food. In spite of protests, this warning was widely publicised and increased research funding for nationally co-ordinated projects on the topic provided. In New York and many other parts of the country, bars, restaurants and liquor stores are required to display a sign stating that drinking can cause birth defects. Since 1989, every container of alcoholic beverage sold in the US has had to carry a label which gives a warning that women should not drink alcohol during pregnancy because of the risks of birth defects."
    And the pressure continues: "Since the late 1980s the issue has become of increasing concern to the US legal system. Cases of physicians facing damage suits for failing to advise that alcohol could affect the foetus have been reported. Since 1987 mothers who use alcohol...during pregnancy have become subject to increasing legal controls, compulsory treatment and may even face imprisonment. If their child shows positive signs of damage they may also face charges of child abuse." (Waterson, J. Women and Alcohol in Social Context: Mother's Ruin Revisited. Hampshire, England: Palgrave, 2000, pp. 167-168. Note: internal references deleted )
  • 23. Barr, Andrew. Drink: A Social History of America. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1999, p. 159.
  • 24. Stratton, K., Howe, C., and Battaglia, F. (Eds.) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996.
  • 25. Stratton, K., Howe, C., and Battaglia, F. (Eds.) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996.
Readings (Listing does not imply endorsement)
  • Aase, J. M., Jones, K. L., and Clarren, S. K. Do we need the term "FAE"? Pediatrics, 95, 428-430.

  • Abel, E. L. Commentary: Fetal alcohol syndrome in families. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 1988, 10, 12.
  • Abel, E. L. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Oradell, NJ: Medical Economics Co., 1990.
  • Abel, E. L. An update on incidence of FAS: FAS is not an equal opportunity birth defect. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, in press.
  • Abel, E. L., and Hannigan, J. H. Maternal risk factors in fetal alcohol syndrome. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, in press.
  • Abel, E. L., et al. Ratings of fetal alcohol syndrome facial features by medical providers and biomedical students. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1993, 17, 717-721.
  • Abel, E. L., and Sokol, R. J. Incidence of fetal alcohol syndrome and economic impact of FAS-related anomalies. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1987, 19, 1024-1031.
  • Abel, E. L., and Sokol, R. J. A revised conservative estimate of the incidence of FAS and its economic impact. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1991, 15, 514-524.
  • Anderson, B., and Novick, E. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Pregnant Women Who Abuse Alcohol. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1992.
  • Barnett, R., and Schusterman, S. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Review of literature and report of cases. Journal of the American Dental Association, 1985, 111, 591-593.
  • Becker, M., Warr-Leeper, G. A., and Leeper, H. A. Fetal alcohol syndrome: A description of oral motor, articulatory, short-term memory, grammatical, and semantic abilities. Journal of Communication Disorders, 1990, 23, 97-124.
  • Bloss, E. The economic cost of FAS. Alcohol Health & Research World, 1994, 18, 53-54.
  • Caruso, K., and ten Bensel, R. Fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Minnesota Medicine, 1993, 76, 25-29.
  • Chernoff, G. F. The fetal alcohol syndrome in mice. Teratology, 1977, 15, 223-230.
  • Centers for Disease control. Linking multiple data sources in fetal alcohol syndrome surveillance - Alaska. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 1995, 44, 249-251.
  • Centers for disease Control. Update: Trends in fetal alcohol syndrome - United states, 1979-1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 1995, 44, 249-251.
  • Centers for Disease Control. Birth certificates as a source for fetal alcohol syndrome case ascertainment - Georgia, 1989-1992. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 1995, 44, 251-253.
  • Clarren, S. K. Neuropathology in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. In: West, J. R. (Ed.) Alcohol and Brain Development. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Pp. 158-166.
  • Clarren, S. K., and Smith, D. W. The fetal alcohol syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 1978, 298, 1063-1067.
  • Clarren, S. K., et al. Facial effects of fetal alcohol exposure. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 1987, 26, 651-666.
  • Coles, C. D., et al. Identification and Treatment of fetal alcohol syndrome: Pediatricians' perspectives. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1991, 15, 369.
  • Conry, J. Neuropsychological deficits in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1990, 14, 650-655.
  • Davis, D. The FAS/FAE child in the classroom. The Iceberg: An Educational Letter on FAS/FAE, 1992.
  • Davis, J. H., and Frost, W. A. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A challenge for the community health nurse. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 1984, 1, 99-110.
  • Fitzgerald, P. FAS persists despite broad public awareness. Michigan Medicine, 1988, (May), 262-268.
  • Hamilton, M. Linguistic abilities of children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, 1981.
  • Hankin, J. R. FAS prevention strategies. Alcohol Health & Research World, 1994, 18, 62-66.
  • Harwood, H. J., and Napolitano, D. M. Economic implications of the fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcohol Health & Research World, 1985, 10, 38-43.
  • Jones, K. L., and Smith, D. W. Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet, 1973, 2, 999-1001.
  • Little, B. B., et al. Failure to recognize fetal alcohol syndrome in newborn infants. American Journal of Disease in Children, 1990, 144, 1142-1146.
  • Mattson, S. N., et al. Fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1992, 16, 1001-1003.
  • May, P. A. Fetal alcohol effects among North American Indians. Alcohol Health & Research World, 1991, 15(3), 239-248.
  • May, P. A. Research Issues in the Prevention of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and Alcohol-Related Birth Defects (ARBD). In: Taylor, E., Mail, P. and Hilton, M. (Eds.) Prevention Research on Women and Alcohol. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, in press.
  • May, P. A., and Hymbaugh, K. J. A pilot project on fetal alcohol syndrome among American Indians. Alcohol Health & Research World, 1983, 7, 3-9.
  • May, P. A., Hymbaugh, K. J., Aase, J. M., and Samet, J. M. Epidemiology of fetal alcohol syndrome among American Indians of the Southwest. Social Biology, 1983, 30, 374-387.
  • Mena, M., et al. Fetal alcohol syndrome at schools. Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization, 1986, 20, 157-169.
  • Morse, B. A., et al. Pediatricians' perspectives on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Journal of Substance Abuse, 1992, 4, 187-195.
  • Morse, B. A., et al. Sensory processing in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1995, 19, 101.
  • Nadel, M. Offspring with fetal alcohol effects. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 1985, 2, 105-116.
  • Nanson, J. L., and Bolaria, M. A. Physician's awareness of fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1991, 15, 367.
  • Plaisier, K. J. Fetal alcohol syndrome prevention in American Indian communities of Michigan's upper peninsula. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 1989, 16-33.
  • Robinson, G. C., Conry, J. L., and Conry, R. F. Clinical profile and prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome in an isolated community in British Columbia. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1987, 137, 203-207.
  • Rosett, H. L. A clinical perspective of the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1980, 4, 119-122.
  • Rosett, H. L., Weiner, L., and Edelin, K. C. Strategies for prevention of fetal alcohol effects. Obstretics and Gynecology, 1981, 57, 1-7.
  • Russell, M. Clinical implications of recent research on the fetal alcohol syndrome. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 1991, 67, 207-222.
  • Smith, I. E., and Coles, C. D. Multilevel intervention for prevention of fetal alcohol syndrome and effects of prenatal alcohol exposure. In: Galanter, M. (Ed.) Recent Developments in Alcoholism, Vol. 9. New York: Plenum, 1991.
  • Steinhausen, H. C., et al. Long-term psychopathology and cognitive outcome of children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1993, 32, 990-1006.
  • Stratton, K., Howe, C., and Battaglia, F. (Eds.) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996.
  • Streissguth, A. P. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Effects. In: Sagon, I. S., and Slotkin, T. A. (Ed.) Maternal Substance Abuse and the Developing Nervous System. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1992.
  • Streissguth, A. P., and Randels, S. P. Long Term Effects of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. In: Robinson, G. (Ed.) Alcohol and Child/Family Health. Vancouver, Canada: University of British Columbia Press, 1989.
  • Streissguth, A. P., and Giunta, C. T. Mental health and health needs of infants and preschool children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. International Journal of Family Psychiatry, 1988, 9, 29-47.
  • Streissguth, A. P., et al. Fetal alcohol syndrome in adolescents and adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1991, 265, 1961-1967.
  • Streissguth, A. P., et al. Natural history of the fetal alcohol syndrome. Lancet, 1985, 2, 85-92.
  • Stromland, K. Eyeground malformations in the fetal alcohol syndrome. Neuropediatrics, 1981, 12, 97-98.
  • Troccoli, K. B. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: The impact on children's ability to learn. National Health Education Consortium - Occasional Paper #10, 1992.
  • Ugent, W. D., et al. Fetal alcohol syndrome. School Psychology International, 1986, 7, 55-60.
  • Weiner, L., Morse, B. A., and Garrido, P. FAS/FAE: Focusing prevention on women at risk. International Journal of the Addictions, 1989, 24, 385-395.